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Conservation movement "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_movement" より
出典: Wikipedia 2007-10-04T01:42:22 より翻訳中。
主な執筆者: RenataSannseAlan LieftingBensaccountJocelyng他。 

Conservation movement 保護運動

The conservation movement is a political and social movement that seeks to protect natural resources including plant and animal species as well as their habitat for the future. Conservation differs from environmentalism in that it aims to preserve natural resources expressly for their continued sustainable use by humans.[1]

保護運動(保全活動、Conservation)は、動物の種族や生息地などの天然資源を将来のために保護しようとする、政治的で社会的な運動である。保護が人間が持続可能で継続的な使用目的で天然資源を特別に保存しようとするという点で、保護は環境保全主義と異なる。[1]

The early conservation movement included fisheries and wildlife management, water, soil conservation and sustainable forestry. The contemporary conservation movement has broadened from the early movement's emphasis on use of sustainable yield of natural resources and preservation of wilderness areas to include preservation of biodiversity. Some say the conservation movement is part of the broader and more far-reaching environmental movement, while others argue that they differ both in ideology and practice.

初期の保護運動は、漁場野生生物管理、水、壌保全と持続可能な林業を含みました。現代の保護運動は、生物多様性の維持を含むために、天然資源の持続可能な収率と自然環境保護区の保存の使用の早めの運動の強調から広がりました。他の人が彼らがイデオロギーと実行において異なると主張する間、何人かは保護運動がより幅広くてより広範囲にわたる環境運動の一部であると言います。

History 歴史

See also: Timeline of environmental events

参照:環境イベントのスケジュール

The nascent conservation movement slowly developed in the 19th century, starting first in the scientific forestry methods pioneered by the Germans and the French in the 17th and 18th centuries. While continental Europe created the scientific methods later used in conservationist efforts, British India and the United States are credited with starting the conservation movement.

発展しかけている保護運動は19世紀にゆっくり発達しました。そして、17、18世紀にドイツ人フランス人によって創始される科学的山林管理方法で初めて始まりました。大陸ヨーロッパが環境保護論者努力において後で使用される科学的研究法を作成する間、英領インドアメリカ合衆国は保護運動を始めることをしたと思われます。

Foresters in India, often German, managed forests using early climate change theories (in America, see also, George Perkins Marsh) that Alexander Von Humboldt developed in the mid 19th century, applied fire protection, and tried to keep the "house-hold" of nature. This was an early ecological idea, in order to preserve the growth of delicate teakDietrich Brandis and Berthold Ribbentrop, traveled back to Europe and taught at forestry schools in England (Cooper's Hill, later moved to Oxford). These men brought with them the legislative and scientific knowledge of conservationism in British India back to Europe, where they distributed it to men such as Gifford Pinchot, which in turn helped bring European and British Indian methods to the United States. trees. The same German foresters who headed the Forest Service of India, such as taught at forestry schools in England (Cooper's Hill, later moved to Oxford). These men brought with them the legislative and scientific knowledge of conservationism in British India back to Europe, where they distributed it to men such as Gifford Pinchot, which in turn helped bring European and British Indian methods to the United States.

インドアレキサンダーVonフムボルトが19世紀中頃に育ったという初期の気候変動論(アメリカで、また、見てください、G・マーシュ)を使っているしばしばドイツの、管理された森)の森林管理官は、火保護を適用して、自然の「家庭」を保とうとしました。優雅なチーク木の成長を保存するために、これは初期の生態学的な考えでした。インド(例えばディートリッヒブランディスバートルドリッベントロップ) の森林警備の先頭にたった同じドイツの森林管理官は、ヨーロッパへ旅行して、イングランド(クーパーのヒル(後でオックスフォードの方へ動かされる))の 林業学校で教えました。これらの男性は英領インドで彼らとconservationismについての立法上で科学的な知識をヨーロッパに戻しました、そこ で、彼らはそれをギフォードピンチョーのような男性に配布しました。そして、それは順番にアメリカ合衆国にヨーロッパで英国のインドの方法を持ってくるのを助けました。

America had its own conservation movement in the 19th century, most often characterized by George Perkins Marsh, author of Man and Nature. The expedition into northwest Wyoming in 1871 led by F.V. Hayden and accompanied by photographer William Henry Jackson provided the imagery needed to substantiate rumors about the grandeur of the Yellowstone region, and resulted in the creation of Yellowstone National Park, the world's first, in 1872. Travels by later U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt through the region around Yellowstone provided the impetus for the creation of the Yellowstone Timberland Reserve in 1891. The largest section of the reserve was later renamed Shoshone National Forest, and it is the oldest National Forest in the U.S. But it was not until 1898 when German forester Dr. Carl A. Schenck, on the Biltmore Estate, and Cornell University founded the first two forestry schools, both run by Germans. Bernard Fernow, founder of the forestry schools at Cornell University and the University of Toronto, was originally from Prussia (Germany), and he honed his knowledge from Germans who pioneered forestry in India. He introduced Gifford Pinchot, the "father of American forestry," to Brandis and Ribbentrop in Europe. From these men, Pinchot learned the skills and legislative patterns he would later apply to America. Pinchot, in his memoir history Breaking New Ground, credited Brandis especially with helping to form America's conservation laws.

アメリカは19世紀にそれ自身の保護運動をしました。そして、G・マーシュManとネイチャーの著者)によって最もしばしば特徴づけられました。1871年の北西のワイオミングへの探検は、F.Vによってリードしました。ヘイデン、そして、カメラマンを連れて行って、ウィリアムヘンリージャクソンイエローストーン地域の雄大さについての噂を立証するために必要なイメージを提供して、1872年にイエローストーン国立公園(世界のもの最初に)の作成に終わりました。イエローストーンの周りの地域を通しての後のセオドアルーズベルト米大統領による旅行は、1891年に刺激をイエローストーンティンバーランド連邦準備制度理事会の創設に提供しました。蓄えで最も大きなセクションはショショーニ族ナショナルフォレストと後で名前を変えられました、そして、それはアメリカで最も年をとったナショナルフォレストであるしかし、ビルトモアEstateの上で、ドイツの森林管理官カールA.シェンク博士とコーネル大学が最初の2つの林業学校(ドイツ人による両方の疾走)を設立したとき、それは1898年までありませんでした。バーナードフェルノウコーネル大学の林業学部の創設者とトロント大学)は当初プロシア(ドイツ)の出身でした、そして、彼はインドで森林地を開拓したドイツ人から彼の知識を磨きました。彼は、ヨーロッパでギフォードピンチョー(「アメリカの林業の父」)をブランディスとリッベントロップに紹介しました。これらの男性から、ピンショーは彼がアメリカに後で適用する技術と立法上のパターンを学びました。ピンショーは、彼の伝記史Breaking New Groundで、ブランディスがアメリカの保護法律を形成するのを助けることを特に持っていると信じました。

In the early 1900s the Conservation movement in America was split into two main groups: conservationists, like Pinchot, who were utilitarian foresters and natural rights advocates who wanted to protect forests "for the greater good for the greatest length," and preservationists, such as John Muir, the founder of the Sierra Club. Whereas conservationists wanted regulated use of forest lands for both public activities and commercial endeavors, preservationists wanted forest to be preserved for natural beauty, scientific study and recreation. The differences continue to the modern era, with sustainable harvest and multiple-use the major focus of the U.S. Forest ServiceNational Park Service. and recreation emphasized by the National Park Service.

1900年代初期に、アメリカでのConservation運動は、2つの主なグループに分けられました:ジョンミューアシエラクラブの創設者)のような環境保護論者(ピンショー(その人は「最も大きな長さのためのより大きな利益のために」森を保護したかった功利主義の森林管理官と自然権擁護団体でした)と保存主義者のような)。求められている環境保護論者が一般の活動と商業努力のために森林地帯の利用法を管理したのに対して、保存主義者は森が自然の美しさ、科学的研究とレクリエーションのために保存されることを望みました。米国の森林警備とレクリエーションの主な焦点が国立公園局によって強調した持続可能な収穫と複数の用途で、違いは現代の時代へと延びています。

[Contributions by hunters

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Hunters have been driving forces throughout history in the movement to ensure long-term sustainability of natural resources and wildlife habitats. Some hunters feel that the honor once bestowed upon their sport has diminished over the years, claiming that mainstream media sometimes ignores the connection between hunting and conservation and often publishes claims that hunting endangers wildlife. Of greater concern to endangered wildlife is the loss of habitat, brought on by overpopulation and urban development. Because of their connection with the land and vested interest in increasing wildlife populations, hunters have been influential in implementing and financing various programs geared towards habitat restoration and conservation.

ハンターは、天然資源野生生物生息地の 長期の持続性を確実にする運動の歴史を通した推進力でした。一部のハンターはかつて彼らのスポーツと同時に用いられる名誉が長年にわたって減少したのを感 じます。そして、主流メディアが時々狩猟と保護の関係を無視して、しばしば、狩猟が野生生物を危険にさらすという主張を発表すると主張します。よりものす ごい懸念の、危険にさらされた野生生物にとって、生息地(人口過剰都市開発によって持ち出される)の損失は、あります。土地との彼らの関係と野生生物人口を増やすことでの既得権のため、ハンターは生息地回復と保護に向けて調整するいろいろなプログラムを実行して、融資する際に影響力がありました。

[編集] Legislation lobbied by hunters

Hunters have worked closely with local and federal governments to enact legislation to protect wildlife habitats. The following examples represent hunter-advocated legislation enacted to generate funds for preserving and establishing habitats.

The Ontario Federation of Anglers and Hunters successfully lobbied to prevent cuts in funding for the Community Fisheries and Wildlife Involvement Program by 50%.

[編集] Pittman-Robertson Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937

In 1937, hunters successfully lobbied Congress to pass the Pittman-Robertson Wildlife Restoration Act, which placed an 11% tax on all hunting equipment. This self-imposed tax now generates over $700 million each year and is used exclusively to establish, restore and protect wildlife habitats.[2]

[編集] Federal Duck Stamp Program

On March 16, 1934 President Roosevelt signed the Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act, which requires an annual stamp purchase by all hunters over the age of sixteen. The stamps are created on behalf of the program by the U.S. Postal Service and depict wildlife artwork chosen through an annual contest. They play an important role in habitat conservation because 98% of all funds generated by their sale go directly toward the purchase or lease of wetland habitat for protection in the National Wildlife Refuge System. In addition to waterfowl, it is estimated that one third of the nation's endangered species seek food and shelter in areas protected using Duck Stamp funds. Since 1934, the sale of Federal Duck Stamps has generated $670M and helped to purchase or lease 5.2 million acres (21,000 km²) of habitat. The stamps serve as a license to hunt migratory birds, an entrance pass for all National Wildlife Refuge areas and are also considered collectors items often purchased for aesthetic reasons outside of the hunting and birding communities. Although non-hunters buy a significant number of Duck Stamps, 87% of their sales are contributed to hunters. Distribution of funds is managed by The Migratory Bird Conservation Commission (MBCC).[3]

[編集] Conservation organizations founded by hunters

There are a number of organizations founded by hunters and by those interested in preserving wildlife populations and habitats. One of the oldest and most well-known organizations is Ducks Unlimited. Another internationally recognized hunters' conservation organization is Safari Club International.

[編集] Problem areas

Deforestation and overpopulation are issues affecting all regions of the world. The consequent destruction of wildlife habitat has prompted the creation of conservation groups in other countries, some founded by local hunters who have witnessed declining wildlife populations first hand.

[編集] Boreal forest and arctic

The idea of incentive conservation is a modern one but its practice has clearly defended some of the sub arctic wildernesses and the wildlife in those regions for thousands of years, especially by indigenous peoples such as the Evenk, Yakut, Sami, Inuit and Cree. The fur trade and hunting of these peoples have preserved these regions for thousands of years in some cases until now, ironically the pressure now upon them come from non renewable resources such as oil, sometimes ironically to make synthetic clothing advocated as "humane" as opposed to fur. (See Raccoon Dog for case study of the conservation an animal is through fur trade.) A similar case where hunting and fur got the blame for an animal's demise, when in fact it was responsible for its revival , was the beaver. For many years childrens books stated and still do, that the decline in beaver was because of the fur trade, when in fact it was because of habitat destruction and deforestation, and its continued persecution as a pest (it causes flooding). In Cree lands however, where the population valued the nanimal for meat and fur, it continued to thrive. The Inuit defend their relationship with the seal in response to outside critics.[4]

In other regions of the Arctic, the Sami in Scandinavia, Russia and the Evenk in Siberia, indigenous peeoples and their traditional hunting and fur trade are making a clear stand against the more "modern" resource exploitation.[citation needed]

Eighty percent of the worlds furs are produced in these regions either through farming by groups such as SAGA or 22% by indigenous peoples. Fur and hunting it appears, as indeed Greenpeace are finding out in the Sami forests, is an economic barrier to development, deforestation etc. The WWF has established areas of traditional hunting and animal use in Siberia and these sable reserves are clearly based on the principles of Incentive Conservation.[5]

[編集] United Kingdom

In the UK, foxhunts are not uncommon despite recent legislation disallowing it.

[編集] Latin America (Bolivia)

The Izoceño-Guaraní of Santa Cruz, Bolivia is a tribe comprised of hunters who were influential in establishing the Capitania del Alto y Bajo Isoso (CABI). CABI promotes economic growth and survival of the Izoceno people while discouraging the rapid destruction of habitat within Bolivia’s Gran Chaco. They are responsible for the creation of the 34,000 square kilometre Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Area (KINP). The KINP protects the most biodiverse portion of the Gran Chaco, an ecoregion shared with Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil. In 1996, the Wildlife Conservation Society joined forces with CABI to institute wildlife and hunting monitoring programs in 23 Izoceño communities. The partnership combines traditional beliefs and local knowledge with the political and administrative tools needed to effectively manage habitats. The programs rely solely on voluntary participation by local hunters who perform self-monitoring techniques and keep records of their hunts. The information obtained by the hunters participating in the program has provided CABI with important data required to make educated decisions about the use of the land. Hunters have been willing participants in this program because of pride in their traditional activities, encouragement by their communities and expectations of benefits to the area.

Because of their spiritual beliefs, many hunters indigenous to this area used conservative approaches to hunting even before population declines were noted. Common self-imposed conservation techniques followed by this tribe include seasonal rotation of hunting areas; not hunting young animals; not hunting excessively beyond the needs of ones family; not hunting vulnerable species; and the substitution of other activities during certain seasons (fishing/farming).

[編集] Africa (Botswana)

In order to discourage illegal South African hunting parties and ensure future local use and sustainability, indigenous hunters in Botswana began lobbying for and implementing conservation practices in the 1960s. The Fauna Preservation Society of Ngamiland (FPS) was formed in 1962 by Robert Kay, an environmentalist working in conjunction with the Batawana tribes to preserve wildlife habitat. The FPS promotes habitat conservation and provides local education for preservation of wildlife. Conservation initiatives were met with strong opposition from the Botswana government because of the monies tied to big-game hunting. In 1963, BaTawanga Chiefs and tribal hunter/adventurers in conjunction with the FPS founded Moremi National Park and Wildlife Refuge, the first area to be set aside by tribal people rather than governmental forces. Moremi National Park is home to a variety of wildlife, including lions, giraffes, elephants, buffalo, zebra, cheetahs and antelope, and covers an area of 3,000 square kilometers. Most of the groups involved with establishing this protected land were involved with hunting and were motivated by their personal observations of declining wildlife and habitat.

[See also 関連項目

[編集] Notes

  1. ^ Gifford, John C. (1945). Living by the Land. Coral Gables, Florida: Glade House, 8. 
  2. ^ The Pittman-Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved on 2007-05-11.
  3. ^ Migratory Bird Conservation Commission. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved on 2007-05-31.
  4. ^ Inuit Ask Europeans to Support Its Seal Hunt and Way of Life (2006-03-06). Retrieved on 2007-07-12.
  5. ^ Traditional use of protected areas in the Russian Arctic (2000-10-28). Retrieved on 2007-07-12.

[編集] References

  • J. Leonard Bates. "Fulfilling American Democracy: The Conservation Movement, 1907 to 1921," The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 44, No. 1. (Jun., 1957), pp. 29-57. in JSTOR
  • Gregory A. Barton, Empire Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism, Cambridge University Press, 2001
  • Bolaane, Maitseo. “Chiefs, Hunters & Adventurers: The Foundation of the Okavango/Moremi National Park, Botswana”. Journal of Historical Geography. 31.2 (Apr. 2005): 241-259.
  • Clover, Charles. 2004. The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat. Ebury Press, London. ISBN 0-09-189780-7
  • Herring, Hall and Thomas McIntyre. “Hunting’s New Ambassadors (Sporting Conservation Council)”. Field and Stream. 111.2 (June 2006): p. 18.
  • Roderick Nash "Wilderness and the American Mind" Yale University Press, 1967
  • Richard W. Judd "Common Lands and Common People, The Origins of Conservation in Northern New England" Harvard University Press, 1997
  • Samuel P. Hays, "Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency" Harvard University Press, 1959.
  • Noss, Andrew and Imke Oetting. “Hunter Self-Monitoring by the Izoceño -Guarani in the Bolivian Chaco”. Biodiversity & Conservation. 14.11 (2005): 2679-2693.
  • Pope, Carl. “A Sporting Chance  Sportsmen and Sportswomen are some of the biggest supporters for the preservation of wildlife”. Sierra. 81.3 (May/June 1996): 14.
  • Reiger, George. “Common Ground: Battles Over Hunting Only Draw Attention Away From the Real Threat to Wildlife”. Field and Stream. 100.2 (June 1985): p. 12.
  • Reiger, George. “Sportsmen Get No Respect (Media Ignores Role of Sportsmen in Conservation)”. Field and Stream. 101.10 (Feb 1997): p. 18.

[編集] External links

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